ChatGPT to enhance learning in dental education at a historically black medical college

The recent rise of powerful large language model (LLM)-based AI tools, exemplified by ChatGPT and Bard, poses a great challenge to contemporary dental education while simultaneously offering a unique resource and approach that potentially complements today’s teaching and learning, where existing widely available learning resources have often fallen short. Although both the clinical and educational aspects of dentistry will be shaped profoundly by the LLM tools, the didactic curricula, which primarily rely on lecture-based courses where instructors impart knowledge through presentations and discussions, need to be upgraded urgently. In this paper, we used dental course materials, syllabi, and textbooks adopted currently in the School of Dentistry (SOD) at Meharry Medical College to assess the potential utility and effectiveness of ChatGPT in dental education. We collected the responses of the chatbot to questions as well as students’ interactions with it for assessment. Our results showed that ChatGPT can assist in dental essay writing and generate relevant content for dental students, in addition to other benefits. The limitations of ChatGPT were also discussed in the paper.


INTRODUCTION
Large language model (LLM)-based AI chatbots, exempli ed by ChatGPT (Chat Generative Pre-Trained Transformer) [1] and Google Bard [2], are remarkably capable of generating human-like responses across a wide spectrum of topics and text formats: formal, informal, content, and creative writing, etc.They pose both challenges and opportunities for the world of education [3][4][5][6].In the context of computer language courses, researchers have harnessed their potential to provide valuable support, including debugging assistance, bug prediction and explanation, contributing to the resolution of programming challenges [5] [6].Moreover, they offer suggestions and code corrections, drawing upon their comprehension of the intricate relationships between code and bugs [5][6].Comparing with other educational resources, ChatGPT and Bard demonstrate clear advantages in terms of cost, accuracy, customization, userfriendliness, seamless integration with existing tools, and scalability.Firat et al. explored the integration of ChatGPT in Learning Management Systems (LMS), platforms for delivering and managing online learning content and experiences [7].ChatGPT enables students to quickly generate answers or essays with minimal efforts, presenting a challenge for instructors.
Additionally, it occasionally generates fabricated contents or provides inaccurate answers to certain topics.To manage its risk [8], therefore, it is urgent for contemporary LMS to provide educators with tools to distinguish AI-generated text from human-generated content [8].Another prominent concern is that the chatbot's knowledge is limited to its training data, rendering it unaware of the latest events [9].Instructors, however, may harness this limitation by requiring students to incorporate current events into their writing assignments.
LLMs do not present the same challenges in dentistry as they do in other academic disciplines, because dental schools primarily use oral exams, practical assessments, and supervised patient treatments to evaluate students [10] [11].In elds that rely heavily on written assignments, including essay, thesis, or scienti c paper writing, however, curriculum update at dental institutions is inevitable [10] [11].LLMs and other AI applications need to be carefully assessed, regulated, managed, and monitored to ensure their safe, ethical, and bene cial uses in dentistry [10] [12].Moreover, although the practical/clinical aspect of dental education is less affected by LLMs than the pedagogical aspect, the signi cant potential of LLMs for advancing clinical applications should not be underestimated.For instance, LLM-empowered virtual assistants can personalize not only learning content according to individual needs, but also the communication with patients [11][12].This will help enhance educational/medical e ciency and reduce the corresponding costs.
To fully realize the potential bene ts of LLMs for dental education, the limitations and accuracy of LLMs needs to be assessed, so that effective quality control can be designed and implemented to safeguard against inaccurate and biased responses to dental-related queries [10].Despite many analyses conducted to assess LLMs' responses [11][12][13], the research in this area is still in its infancy, and the implications of LLMs for dental education remain insu ciently understood.In this paper, we explore the utility and effectiveness of LLMs to enhance dental students' learning experiences, with a focus on the use of ChatGPT [1], one of the leading LLMs.
This study was conducted in the School of Dentistry (SOD) at Meharry Medical College (MMC).MMC, as a historically black college/university (HBCU) and the rst medical school for African Americans (AA) in the South, has trained over 40% of America's AA dentists and produced 8% of the nation's AA physicians.Notably, the majority of dental students and residents in MMC's SOD are AA (constituting 80% of the student body) and three out of every four of them provide medical or dental services in urban or rural underserved communities.By leveraging ChatGPT to assist dental students in learning, this project can potentially enhance students' academic performance, which, in turn, will empower MMC to better serve patients in underserved communities.Furthermore, this project was supported in part by a NIMHD supplement grant under award number U54MD007586 [14][15][16].

MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study provides an exploratory assessment of ChatGPT's utilities for enhancing pedagogical aspect of dental education.To evaluate how well ChatGPT can aid dental students in writing, we collected student essays and then embedded in them incorrect dental terminologies, e.g., wrong word order, improper capitalization and abbreviation, and the use of numerals in place of Roman numerals, etc.The essays were presented to ChatGPT to check if it can recognize and rectify these dental-speci c terms.The dental terminologies used in the assessment were selected based on their prevalence in dental curricula.The essays used did not include any patient information -patient-related data was not used in any other experiment, either.
Another type of data employed to assess ChatGPT comprises the test objectives of the National Board Examinations (INBDE), which was designed to aid dental boards in determining the quali cations of those seeking licensure to practice dentistry or dental hygiene.ChatGPT-generated outputs based on the INBDE codes for various dental subjects were evaluated by domain experts to verify their utility.ChatGPT was also tasked with responding to a diverse range of queries, including dental students' assignments such as quizzes, dental literature-related questions, etc.This study was conducted using the free version of ChatGPT, i.e., version 3.5, which was available at the time when this project started, and which was the one consistently utilized throughout this project.Figure 1 provides an overview of our procedures for collecting and processing the data generated by ChatGPT.
These steps are elaborated below: 1. Dental study queries were created based on various categories of assessments in dental education.
2. Dental queries were executed using ChatGPT's web interface.
3. ChatGPT generated responses were collected for downstream analysis.

The collected data was analyzed.
Six domain experts, who also serve as co-authors of this paper, were responsible for collecting data, generating questions for ChatGPT, and verifying its responses.This group included ve dental students and a professor from the School of Dentistry.For ChatGPT generated results, the experts employed a Likert scale to assess their accuracy quantitatively.On the data captured, descriptive analyses, including means, median, and frequencies, were performed.
To ensure reproducibility of the work, we validated some selected results.After conducting an initial experiment, we also asked similar set of questions a week later to check the robustness of ChatGPT's responses.In addition, we followed the guideline as outlined in [17] in all our experiments, the results of which were presented in section below.

ChatGPT to Enhance Writing in Dental Education
Essays and re ective writings are an important assessment tool in dental curriculum.They are used widely as a means to develop students' critical thinking skills and communication skills.With ChatGPT's ability to produce creative and content writing being well documented in other elds, to assess the effectiveness of ChatGPT to assist dental students in writing, here we focused on evaluating its capability of recognizing and correcting dental terminologies in student essays.
We collected essays from a group of dental students that describe dental histories of patients.Various types of errors that are commonly found in essays of dental students were added into these essays, such as incorrect alphabet order, improper capitalization and abbreviation, and numerals instead of Roman numerals.Table 1 shows some example errors, from which we can see that many capitalization errors, punctuation errors, spelling errors, subject-verb agreement errors, and other dental-speci c errors require dental background to comprehend.
We applied ChatGPT to the essays that contains arti cially added errors to check if it can identify and rectify these errors.Figure 2 provides the result of our assessment, in which blue bars present the total number of errors, red bars present the total number of errors corrected by ChatGPT, X-axis represents error types, and Y-axis number of errors.It shows in the Figure 2 that ChatGPT successfully identi ed and corrected all the errors, indicating it can be a valuable tool for assisting dental students in writing.

Accuracy of ChatGPT Responses
The ability of LLMs such as ChatGPT to consistently provide accurate responses to questions is vital in dental education and practice, because this can not only help identify dental issues in an effective manner, but also enhance the applications and adoptions of LLMs in dentistry.On the other hand, inaccurate responses can create an image of untrustworthy or even be devastating, as precise and accurate results work as the key in clinical applications.
To measure the accuracy of ChatGPT's responses, we formulated a rubric, which is described in Table 2, to associate each criterion for evaluating ChatGPT responses with a grade.For simplicity, the scale of the rubric ranges from 0 to 3, with 0 indicating that a statement is not re ected in a ChatGPT output at all, grade 1 indicating a statement-related information is present but with discrepancies, 2 indicating slightly changed or altered wording in a ChatGPT response, and scale 3 indicating a precise statement is found in a ChatGPT response (Table 2).
To make our work reproducible by peers, we used a selected set of published articles instead of con dential clinical notes as test data for this assessment.Table 3 shows the main topics of four recently published papers (1 st column) [10] [11][18] [19].Take the Article 1 in the table as an example [10], which provides an overview of the implications of ChatGPT for dental medicine.For each key point in this paper (1 st column), we asked ChatGPT to summarize authors' opinion.An abbreviated version of ChatGPT's responses was provided in the 2 nd column of the table, so readers can easily compare with the key points in the 1 st column.
The rubric de ned in Table 2 was applied to grade ChatGPT's responses.Our evaluation of ChatGPT's responses was then provided in the last column of Table 3, which shows that ChatGPT received a grade 2 (or 2/3=66.67%)for most of the questions about this article.It indicates that its ability to accurately extract and synthesize information from this document still needs to be improved.
The four articles in Table 3 cover a variety of topics about ChatGPT: bene ts, concerns, scienti c discovery and innovation, etc.For ChatGPT's summary of the key points of these four articles, the highest rubric score is 2 (or 2/3=66.67%), the lowest one is 0, and the median score is 2 (or 66.67%).The overall accuracy of 66.67% and its lack of consistency across these articles indicate that ChatGPT is better used with caution when applied to appraise literature.This result is consistent with a recent study by Ali et al. [13], who observed that ChatGPT provided accurate responses to majority of knowledge-based assessments, while consistently underperformed for critical appraisal of literature [13].

Assistance in Test Preparation
With testing being a critical part of teaching and learning, next we evaluated if ChatGPT can assist dental students in testing preparation.In dental education, the INBDE Dental Board Exam is one of the most important steps on a student's journey to becoming a dentist.Here, INBDE, which stands for National Board Examinations, was designed to assist dental boards in determining the quali cations of those seeking licensure to practice dentistry or dental hygiene.
For each INBDE code, we asked ChatGPT to generate a test question from a peer review resource.Its output was then evaluated by domain experts to con rm its relevance.Table 4 shows some example INBDE Test Objectives for dental examination and ChatGPT generated questions for them.As shown in Table 4, the subject areas in this assessment are broad and compressive, covering various aspects of the dental education in MMC's SOD, including manual instructions for class 1 amalgam cavity preparation in an operative dentistry class, analysis of objectives for a nutrition class, study questions from a periodontics class, interpretation of dental radiographs for a dental radiography class, and analysis of chapter summary topics from a pathology class textbook, etc.
The analysis of ChatGPT generated questions showed that it could bring diverse information together on a speci c subject.In addition, some generated questions were inappropriate to be used directly for testing if without re nement, indicating that current version of ChatGPT still lacks higher-order intelligence that is required to correctly synthesize information.Despite its limitation, the questions and answers generated using ChatGPT still have some values.Some could potentially be used to help students identify subject areas that require additional efforts in their preparation for the INBDE test.

Other Assessments
We also conducted other assessments of ChatGPT.For example, we asked ChatGPT about dental health bene ts of dietary bers.ChatGPT responded with some recommendations as key bene ts of dietary bers: they promote regularity, reduce risk of colon cancer, help manage blood sugar, and lower cholesterol level, etc.Additionally, for a question about a dentistry operation procedure about class 1 amalgam preparation, ChatGPT response is very close to a dental expert recommendation in the area: ChatGPT summarized that class 1 amalgam preparation is a routine restorative procedure in operative dentistry and the key to a successful restoration is careful cavity preparation and amalgam condensation, followed by careful carving and polishing of the restoration.

DISCUSSION
In this paper, we explored the e cacy and potential applications of large language model (LLM)-based AI tools, in particular ChatGPT, in dental education.Our results demonstrated that ChatGPT can effectively recognize and correct dental terminologies and hence is a valuable tool for aiding dental students in writing.A potential limitation in our approach is that our assessment relied on manual evaluations, introducing an element of subjectivity, as different assessors may tend to have varying interpretations of errors.This variability could affect the accuracy and consistency of the error analysis.Furthermore, this study focused speci cally on ve categories of errors.Other types of errors or linguistic aspects that could in uence writing quality were not considered.Therefore, a comprehensive analysis is still needed for future scale-up studies.Furthermore, similar as other language models, ChatGPT may inherit biases inherent in its training data.These biases can in uence its comprehension and correction of errors, potentially resulting in inconsistencies or inaccuracies in the suggestions it offers.It may also have inherent limitations in its grasp of complex grammar rules, contextual nuances, or domain-speci c language.These limitations could impede its ability to accurately identify and rectify errors, particularly in complex cases or instances involving uncommon error types.
The scope of this study needs to be expanded to encompass a longitudinal assessment of ChatGPT's sustained impact on student performance and learning outcomes.It is also imperative to delve into the ethical considerations entailed in the adoption of AI tools, including ChatGPT, within educational contexts.Additionally, the exploration of the potential integration of ChatGPT into established dental education frameworks and platforms holds promise for enhancing practicality and accessibility for students.Another intriguing avenue for further investigation lies in comparing ChatGPT with conventional methods commonly employed in dental education, such as grammar and spelling correction tools.
Collecting feedback from a large cohort of dental students who have actively employed ChatGPT as an educational tool can yield invaluable insights into their individual experiences and perceptions.
Additionally, gaining an understanding of the various ways students utilize ChatGPT, as well as their attitudes and overall satisfaction with the tool's assistance, could inform meaningful enhancements for the future.By embarking on these areas of investigation, we can gain deeper insights into the potential bene ts, limitations, and implications associated with the integration of ChatGPT in dental education.

CONCLUSION
The recent rise of LLM-based AI chatbots, exempli ed by ChatGPT and Bard, presents both opportunities and challenges in contemporary dental education.The pedagogical aspect of dentistry in the School of Dentistry (SOD) at Meharry Medical College predominantly revolves around lecture-based courses, where instructors disseminate knowledge through presentations and discussions.To address the challenges posed by the AI chatbots, this paper explored the potential utility and effectiveness of integrating ChatGPT into the pedagogical aspect of the dental education in the SOD.
In our evaluation of ChatGPT's suitability for aiding dental students in writing, we observed its capability to effectively recognize and accurately rectify special dental terminologies, which require dental background for comprehension.This observation indicates ChatGPT can be a valuable writing assistant to help dental students with essay writing.Furthermore, we measured the aptitude of ChatGPT in responding to questions that we posed for a selection of published articles.Our assessment, based on a grading rubric, revealed a median accuracy of 66.7%.This suggests that while ChatGPT can extract and Tables

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Table 1 .
Erroneous dental terminologies provided to ChatGPT for recognition and correction.

Table 1 .
Rubrics for evaluating ChatGPT responses to questions.